Blog By: Jose S. Herrera
In 2022, the U.S. imported a record 2.7 billion pounds of avocados, with 88% sourced from Michoacán, Mexico.[i] The expansion of avocado production to meet American demand carries environmental consequences, including biodiversity loss, water scarcity, pesticide contamination, and soil degradation.[ii] Rapid land use change, particularly deforestation, is the main contributor to these issues driven by growing avocado production.[iii]
Michoacán, characterized by unique coniferous and oak forests, saw a threefold increase in avocado cultivation from 1990 to 2016, covering 72% of the total avocado orchard land in Mexico by 2019.[iv] This growth led to the clearing of 30% of the coniferous and oak forests in Michoacán, disrupting natural processes and dispersing local wildlife.[v] The intensive farming practices, including cutting down surrounding pine and oak trees to accommodate full-grown Hass avocado trees, have negatively impacted the diversity of mammals, amphibians, and specialist species in Michoacán.[vi]
Furthermore, the territorial expansion of avocado plantations poses a threat to ten threatened pollinator species, with projected habitat reductions of up to 67% for bumblebees, 59% for hummingbirds, and 79% for pollinator bats.[vii] The Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve in Michoacán, crucial for the survival of millions of monarch butterflies, faces encroachment by avocado plantations, leading to habitat loss and pesticide threats to the butterflies.[viii] The ecological consequences of the expanding avocado industry in Michoacán highlight the urgent need for sustainable practices and conservation efforts.[ix]
A crucial social aspect linked to avocado expansion and deforestation is the intricate nature of land tenure policy in the region.[x] In 1992, changes in forest policy permitted the subdivision and sale of communally owned ejido land.[xi] This policy shift, coupled with a breakdown in local governance in various areas, resulted in increased deforestation due to illegal logging, even before the expansion of avocado cultivation.[xii] By the time incentives for avocado expansion emerged years later, the deforestation pattern in the area had already been established.[xiii]
The Ley General de Desarrollo Forestal Sustentable (LGDFS), or General Act for Sustainable Forestry Development, stands out as a highly effective measure in Mexico's efforts to combat deforestation. [xiv] This legislation specifically focuses on areas at high risk of deforestation and vulnerable ecosystems, aiming to promote conservation, protection, and restoration while also encouraging activities such as production, cultivation, and forestry management.[xv] Integral to the LGDFS is the incorporation of a Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) system, which is supervised by the federal administrative agency CONAFOR. [xvi]
While the program has experienced moderate success in other regions, the substantial profit margins from avocados make PES compensation less competitive in avocado-producing areas.[xvii] PES systems break down when environmentally conscious land use is less profitable than alternatives.[xviii] In Michoacán, farming avocados proves more lucrative than participating in PES programs, and the lack of oversight has led to a common practice of collecting PES payments and farming those areas anyway.[xix]
The LGDFS places responsibility for forest health on landholders and municipalities, who appear vulnerable to corruption or extortion by drug cartels operating in the area.[xx] Social conflict linked to cartel presence unfolded in Michoacán, exemplified by Cherán's 2011 municipal coup d'état where residents ousted corrupt police, expressing their intent to defend against cartel intrusion and protect their forests and indigenous culture.[xxi] This scenario is not unique; other Michoacán towns formed similar self-defense groups dissatisfied with police protection from narco-mafias.[xxii]
Notably, conflicts involving cartels intersect with the avocado industry, as narco-mafias reportedly extort legitimate businesses, including avocado farms, demanding a share of profits.[xxiii] There is no denying the increase in violence and murder driven by the appropriation of land suitable for avocado farming.[xxiv] The inequitable distribution of costs and benefits in avocado production led to heightened regional conflicts.[xxv] Small farmers, agricultural workers, and local communities bear the brunt of negative impacts, including pollution, violence, dispossession, loss of livelihoods, erosion of community governance, and public health issues, while reaping minimal profits.[xxvi]
To address this, targeted policies safeguarding community rights, promoting communal organizations and cooperatives, and enhancing land and forest governance are crucial.[xxvii] Upholding the rule of law, enforcing environmental regulations, penalizing forest land-use change, regulating pesticide use, promoting agroforestry, and encouraging organic avocado production are essential measures to tackle the regional ecological crisis driven by industrial avocado production.[xxviii] Proper enforcement and oversight are crucial for Mexico's PES system.[xxix] The agency disbursing funds must monitor and verify compliance transparently using methods like satellite images.[xxx] Experts recommend routine check-ins, drone surveillance, and GIS mapping for effective long-term tracking.[xxxi] Introducing sanctions for contract violations would ensure compliance and deter fraud, potentially suspending or canceling payments until the terms are met.[xxxii] The Mexican Federal Government needs to drastically overhaul the LGDFS and ensure the protection of its forests and its people.[xxxiii]
[i] Kimin Cho et al., Where does your guacamole come from? Detecting deforestation associated with the export of avocados from Mexico to the United States, 278 J. of Env’t Mgmt. 1 (Jan. 15, 2021).
[ii] Manuel Ochoa Ayala, Avocado: the ‘green gold’ causing environment havoc, World Econ. Forum (Feb. 4, 2020), https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/02/avocado-environment-cost-food-mexico.weforum.org/agenda/2020/02/avocado-environment-cost-food-mexico [perma.cc/U2GN-HHJC].
[iii] Eugenio Y. Arima et al., Modelling avocado-driven deforestation in Michoacán, Mexico, Env’t Rsch. Letters (Feb. 23, 2022).
[iv] Nadeem Khan et al., Socio-ecological resilience and environmental sustainability: case of avocado from Mexico, 28 Int’l J. of Sustainable Dev. and World Ecology 744, 744-758 (Mar. 31, 2021).
[v] Jesús Sáenz-Ceja et al., Pollinator Species at Risk from the Expansion of Avocado Monoculture in Central Mexico, 2 Conservation 1-16 (Aug. 1, 2022).
[vi] Id.
[vii] Id.
[viii] Id.
[ix] Id.
[x] Audrey Denvir et al., Ecological and human dimensions of avocado expansion in México: Towards supply-chain sustainability, Ambio (Mar. 18, 2021), https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33738729/ [perma.cc/WZQ8-DBPL].
[xi] Id.
[xii] Id.
[xiii] Id.
[xiv] Katharine Sims et al., Parks Versus Pes: Evaluating Direct and Incentive-Based Land Conservation In Mexico, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management (2016).
[xv] Id.
[xvi] Olivia Hansen, Deforestation Caused by Illegal Avocado Farming: A Case Study on the Effectiveness of Mexico’s Payment for Ecosystem Services Program, 49 The Univ. of Miami Inter-American L. Rev. 90, 91-127 (Jan. 1, 2018).
[xvii] Id.
[xviii] Id.
[xix] Id.
[xx] Id.
[xxi] Karla Zabludovsky, DIY justice: Mexico town expels cops, reclaims forest from illegal loggers, NBC News (Aug. 3, 2012, 4:23 AM), https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna48478168 [perma.cc/TR2R-HM6Z].
[xxii] Id.
[xxiii] Scott Simon, Mexican drug cartels are getting into the avocado and lime business, NPR (Feb. 19, 2022), https://www.npr.org/2022/02/19/1081948884/mexican-drug-cartels-are-getting-into-the-avocado-and-lime-business [perma.cc/K6KJ-HG88].
[xxiv] Id.
[xxv]Alfonso De la Vega-Rivera et al., Socio-Environmental Impacts of the Avocado Boom in the Meseta Purépecha, Michoacán, Mexico, Sustainability, ( June 29, 2021).
[xxvi] Id.
[xxvii] Id.
[xxviii] Id.
[xxix] Hansen, supra note xiv.
[xxx] Id.
[xxxi] Id.
[xxxii] Id.
[xxxiii] Id.